| Non-Rationalised History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Chapter 11 Buildings, Paintings And Books
Marutasami And The Iron Pillar
Visiting historical sites like the Qutb Minar complex in Delhi offers opportunities to see remarkable examples of ancient Indian craftsmanship, such as the famous iron pillar, highlighting the skills of metallurgists and builders from the past.
The Iron Pillar
The Iron Pillar located at Mehrauli, Delhi, is an extraordinary example of the advanced metallurgical skills of ancient Indian craftspersons. It is made of iron, stands 7.2 meters high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. The pillar was constructed about 1500 years ago. An inscription on the pillar mentions a ruler named Chandra, who is believed to have belonged to the Gupta dynasty (Chapter 10).
What is particularly astonishing is that this iron pillar has not rusted over the past 1500 years, showcasing a high level of metallurgical knowledge and technique that prevented corrosion.
Metallurgical Contributions
Ancient Indian metallurgists made significant contributions to the history of metallurgy worldwide. Archaeological excavations have shown that the Harappans were skilled craftsmen with knowledge of copper metallurgy, even producing bronze by alloying copper and tin. While the Harappan Civilization belongs to the Bronze Age, later periods in India are associated with the Iron Age, where highly advanced types of iron (forged iron, wrought iron, and cast iron) were produced.
Buildings In Brick And Stone
The skills of ancient Indian craftspersons are also evident in surviving buildings made of brick and stone, such as stupas and temples.
Stupas
A **stupa** literally means a **mound**. Stupas come in various forms and sizes but share common features. Typically, a small box called a **relic casket** is placed at the center or heart of the stupa. This box often contains the bodily remains (teeth, bone, ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, items they used, or precious stones and coins.
The relic casket was covered with earth, then layers of mud brick or baked brick were added to form the mound. The dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs. A path known as the **pradakshina patha** (circumambulation path) was usually laid around the stupa, often surrounded by railings. Entrance to this path was through gateways, which, along with the railings, were frequently decorated with sculptures. Devotees walked clockwise around the stupa as an act of devotion.
The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, is a famous example that evolved over centuries. The core mound may date back to Ashoka's time (Chapter 7), while railings and gateways were added later.
Amaravati (Map 7, page 105) was another site with a magnificent stupa, known for its stone carvings made about 2000 years ago.
Caves
Besides free-standing structures, some early buildings were hollowed out of rock to create artificial caves. These caves were sometimes elaborately decorated with sculptures and paintings.
Jaina monasteries were also carved out of rock surfaces, providing living and meditation spaces for monks. These rock-cut structures showcase advanced stone-cutting skills.
Temples
Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also constructed during this period. These shrines were built for the worship of deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga. The most important part of the temple was the **garbhagriha**, the main room where the image of the chief deity was placed. Priests conducted religious rituals here, and devotees offered worship.
Often, a tower called a **shikhara** was built above the garbhagriha to highlight its sacred status. Building shikharas required careful planning and engineering.
Most temples also included a hall called the **mandapa**, where people could assemble.
Some of the finest stone temples were built in towns like Mahabalipuram and Aihole (Map 7, page 105).
The temples at Mahabalipuram are unique as they are monolithic temples, carved out of a single, huge piece of stone. Unlike building brick structures from the bottom up, monolithic carving required stone cutters to work from the top downwards, presenting specific challenges in planning and execution.
How Were Stupas And Temples Built?
Constructing stupas and temples was a multi-stage process, often initiated by kings or queens due to the significant costs involved. Key steps included:
- Material Sourcing: Finding and quarrying good quality stone.
- Transportation: Transporting the stone to the chosen building site.
- Shaping and Carving: Shaping rough stone blocks into pillars, and panels for walls, floors, and ceilings.
- Assembly: Carefully placing the shaped and carved stones in the correct positions.
Kings and queens provided funds from their treasuries to pay the craftspersons (stone cutters, carvers, builders) involved in creating these structures. Additionally, devotees visiting stupas and temples often contributed gifts, which were used for decorating the buildings. Associations of craftspersons (like ivory workers at Sanchi) and hundreds of individuals from various occupations also donated for decorations, sometimes leaving inscriptions with their names on the structures. Visiting these buildings today serves as a reminder of the collective effort and skill of hundreds of people involved in their construction and decoration over centuries.
Painting
Sites like Ajanta (Map 7, page 105) are famous for their ancient paintings. Over centuries, several caves were carved out of the hills at Ajanta, many of which served as monasteries for Buddhist monks. Some of these caves were decorated with exquisite paintings, providing insights into the art and life of that period.
Creating these paintings inside dark caves required working in torchlight. The vibrant colors, which have remained vivid for over 1500 years, were made from plants and minerals. Despite the splendor of these artworks, the artists who created them remain anonymous.
The World Of Books
This period also saw the composition of some of the best-known **epics**. Epics are long, grand compositions featuring heroic characters (men and women) and stories about gods. They often convey moral lessons and cultural values.
Two famous Tamil epics were written during this time:
- Silappadikaram: Composed by the poet Ilango around 1800 years ago. It tells the tragic story of Kovalan, a merchant from Puhar, who neglects his wife Kannagi for a courtesan, and Kannagi's eventual act of destroying the city of Madurai in anger after Kovalan is wrongly accused of theft and executed.
- Manimekalai: Composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This epic narrates the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and the courtesan Madhavi.
These beautiful Tamil compositions were lost for many centuries before their manuscripts were rediscovered about a hundred years ago. Other writers, such as Kalidasa (Chapter 10), composed literary works in Sanskrit.
Kalidasa is renowned for his plays and poems. His famous poem, the Meghaduta ('Cloud Messenger'), features a monsoon cloud acting as a messenger between separated lovers. The poem contains beautiful descriptions of nature, reflecting Kalidasa's appreciation for the natural world.
Recording And Preserving Old Stories
Many Hindu religious stories that were previously transmitted orally were written down during this period. These include the Puranas, which literally means 'old'. The Puranas contain stories about various gods and goddesses (Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Parvati), instructions on how to worship them, accounts of the creation of the world, and stories about kings. The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse, making them accessible to everyone, including women and shudras who were traditionally not allowed to study the Vedas. They were often recited by priests in temples, with people gathering to listen.
Two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, were already popular long before this period. The stories were written down in their current form around 1500 years ago. The Mahabharata tells the story of a war between cousins (Kauravas and Pandavas) for control of the Kuru throne and their capital, Hastinapura. Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are traditionally attributed to Vyasa. The Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 9), a sacred philosophical text, is part of the Mahabharata.
The Ramayana tells the story of Rama, a prince of Kosala, his exile, the abduction of his wife Sita by Ravana (king of Lanka), Rama's war to rescue her, his victory, and return to Ayodhya (capital of Kosala). Valmiki is recognized as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana. Numerous versions of the Mahabharata and Ramayana are popular across different regions of the subcontinent and are often performed in various forms.
Stories were also told by ordinary people and preserved in collections like the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time. Stories from the Jatakas, which are tales about the previous lives of the Buddha, were frequently depicted in sculptures on the railings of stupas and in paintings, such as those found at Ajanta. For example, the story of the monkey king, found in the Jataka collection, is depicted in a sculpture from a stupa at Bharhut in central India, showcasing the popularity of these stories and their representation in art.
Writing Books On Science
Significant advancements were also made in science during this period, and knowledge was recorded in books. Aryabhata, a celebrated mathematician and astronomer, composed a book in Sanskrit called the **Aryabhatiyam**. In this work, he proposed that day and night are caused by the Earth's rotation on its axis, challenging the apparent motion of the sun. He also provided a scientific explanation for eclipses and developed a method for calculating the circumference of a circle that was remarkably close to modern formulas.
Other notable mathematicians and astronomers of this era who made significant discoveries included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskaracharya.
Zero and Numerals
A crucial invention during this period was the special symbol for zero. While numerals were used earlier, the invention of zero revolutionized the system of counting and mathematics. This Indian system of counting and the concept of zero were later adopted by Arab mathematicians and then spread to Europe, becoming the basis of the global numerical system used today. The Romans, in contrast, used a counting system that did not include zero.
Ayurveda
Ayurveda is a renowned system of health science that originated and developed in ancient India. Two of its most famous practitioners in ancient India were Charaka (1st-2nd centuries CE) and **Sushruta** (c. 4th century CE). Charaka's **Charak Samhita** is a significant medical text. Sushruta's treatise, the **Susruta Samhita**, is notable for describing elaborate surgical procedures, highlighting the advanced state of medical knowledge and practice.
Elsewhere
Looking at inventions in other parts of the world provides broader context. Paper, now a ubiquitous part of daily life, was invented in China about 1900 years ago by a man named Cai Lun. He developed the technique by processing plant fibers, cloth, rope, and tree bark through soaking, beating into pulp, pressing, draining, and drying.
The method of making paper was initially kept secret in China. It reached Korea about 1400 years ago and soon spread to Japan. Paper making became known in Baghdad around 1800 years ago and from there diffused to Europe, Africa, and other parts of Asia, including the Indian subcontinent. In early India, manuscripts were typically made from materials like palm leaves or birch bark (Chapter 1), as paper was not yet widely available.
Imagine
This section prompts an imaginative exercise: envisioning oneself sitting in a mandapa of a temple and describing the surrounding scene, drawing upon the descriptions of temple architecture, the garbhagriha, shikhara, and mandapa, and picturing people and activities within the temple complex.
Let’s Recall
This section contains questions to check recall of key terms, definitions, authors, and the names of significant texts from the chapter, including matching columns and filling in blanks.
| Column A | Column B |
|---|---|
| Stupa | Mound |
| Shikhara | Tower |
| Mandapa | Place in temples where people could assemble |
| Garbhagriha | Place where the image of the deity is installed |
| Pradakshina patha | Circular path around the stupa |
Let’s Discuss
This section includes questions designed to stimulate discussion and critical analysis, such as identifying instances of metal working in previous chapters, comparing the qualities of the monkey king from the Jataka story with historical kings, and discussing the historical importance of epics by recounting stories from them.
Let’s Do
This section suggests practical activities for engagement and application of concepts, including listing steps to make buildings accessible to differently-abled people (connecting historical architecture with modern social considerations), listing uses of paper (linking historical invention to modern life), and choosing and explaining the preference for visiting one of the historical places described in the chapter.
Keywords
This section lists important terms introduced in the chapter:
- stupa
- temple
- painting
- epic
- story
- Purana
- science
- mathematics
Some Important Dates
This section provides a timeline of key periods and events mentioned in the chapter, helping to establish chronological context:
- Beginning of stupa building: about 2300 years ago (referencing Ashoka's time, Chapter 7).
- Amaravati stupa carvings: about 2000 years ago.
- Kalidasa flourishes: about 1600 years ago.
- Construction of the Iron Pillar, Temple at Bhitargaon, Paintings at Ajanta, Aryabhata's work: about 1500 years ago.
- Construction of the Durga temple at Aihole: about 1400 years ago.
A Quick Look At Dates
This section provides a summary of approximate dates for major events and periods discussed throughout the book, offering a consolidated timeline for understanding the chronological flow of Indian history covered. It also explains the use of 'c.' (circa) for approximate dates and variations in dating found in historical studies (e.g., BC/BCE, AD/CE, mya).